Scrutinizing Urbanization in Kathmandu Using Google Earth Engine Together with Proximity-Based Scenario Modelling

‘Urbanization’ refers to the expansion of built-up areas caused by several factors. This study focuses on urbanization process in Kathmandu, capital Nepal. Supervised classification was conducted Google Earth Engine using Landsat data for years 2001, 2011 and 2021. The random forest classifier with 250 trees used generate land-cover map. A map 2021 as base InVEST tool scenario modelling. An accuracy assessment 20% sample points different metrics, such overall accuracy, kappa coefficient, producer consumer accuracy. results show an increment around 67 km2 over 20 a centrifugal pattern from core district, converting agricultural land. ‘Forest’ is still dominant land-use class, area 177.97 km2. Agricultural land highly converted urban area. this ranged 0.96–1.00 years. modelling further elaborated amiability drastic shift classes ‘built-up’, especially agriculture, 33 66 km2, respectively. recommends consideration ecological approaches during planning process.